Bosnia - Herzegovina Essay -- essays research papers fc

Bosnia-Herzegovina is a countrylocated in southeastern Europe. Bosnia- Herzegovinadeclared its independence in March of 1992. Usually, thiscountry is referred to as Bosnia, but is officially namedBosnia-Herzegovina. In 1918, Bosnia-Herzegovina becamepart of the kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes,which later became known as the country of Yugoslavia. In1946, Yugoslavia became a federal state consisting of sixrepublics, one of which was Bosnia-Herzegovina. Slavicpeople desex up most of the counties population. The largestgroups are the Bosnia Muslims, the Serbs, and the Croats.Much of the Serbian population opposed to Bosniasindependence and a civil war erupted in the Spring of 1992.Serbian forces before long occupied about two-thirds of thecountry. About one-fifth was soon held by BosnianCroatians. The remainder of the country was held byBosnian political relation troops, mainly Bosnian Muslims. From1945, work 1990, communists held a monopoly on powers inall of Yugoslavia , including Bosnia-Herzegovina. In 1990,non-communists gained a majority of seats in Bosnias firstmulti-party election. Bosnia-Herzegovinas capitol city isSarajevo, which can be found in the center of the country.Although many languages are spoke there, the main languageis Serbo-Croatian. In a 1991 census, there was a reported4,365,639 people living in the borders ofBosnia-Herzegovina which has an range of 19,741 squaremiles, and in 1995 there was an estimated 4,454,000 peoplein the country (Twenty-two people per square mile.)Sixty-six percent of those people live in rural areas, divergenceonly thirty-four percent living in urban areas. Bosnia-Herzegovinas money system is based on the Dinar. Theirmain agricultural exports are cattle, cherries, corn, grapes,hogs, peaches, pears, plums, potatoes, sheep, soybeans,tobacco, walnuts, and wheat. As a developing country, theirindustrial production is slightly limited, producing mainlyelectrical appliances and textiles. There is also a lot of miningof coal and iron ore which also contributes to the countrieseconomy. Bosnias government is headed by a sevenmember collective presidency. The presidency consists oftwo Croats, two Bosnian Muslims, two Serbs, and oneindividual who is not affiliated with a specific ethnic group.Voters elect members to a four year term. The membersthen elect a president who serves a one year... ...ims, Serbs, and Croats shouldfight for what the believe in, and the strongest will eventuallyprevail. Bibliography 1. The Christian Science Monitor11-16-94 surname Opening the Docket Trials of a WarTribunal 2. USA Today 12-5-94 Title Serb Defiance has its grow in Balkan History 3. USA Today 2-14-95 Title UNTribunal Accuses 21 Serbs of War Atrocities 4. USAToday 10-16-95 Title Mass Graves Yield crime in Bosnia5. USA Today 10-11-95 Title Clear Messages to BosnianWar Criminals...No Deal 6. Pittsburgh Post Gazette10-8-95 Title War Crime Trails may be Thwarted by PeaceBid 7. US News & World base 4-10 -95 Title A Hunt forthe Killers of Bosnia 8. Macleans 8-15-94 Title SerbianDeath face pack 9. War Criminals, War Victims by RandomHouse Inc. 1971 10. World Book Encyclopedia Volume B& Y, 1990 11. US News & World Report 11-27-94 TitleJumping the Gun in Bosnia 12. US News & World Report9-18-95 Title The US Risk in Bosnia 13. US News &World Report 11-6-95 Title Keepers of the Peace 14.Merit Students Encyclopedia Volume 3. 1988 15.Newsweek 8-17-95 Title Ethnic Cleansing 16. PittsburghPost Gazette 11-14-95 Title Tribunal Changes BosnianCroats

Medical Anthropology Essay examples -- Medicine Culture Environment Es

Medical Anthropology Introduction and Description My topic, Medical Anthropology, is a field of study that uses finale, religion, education, economics/infrastructure, history, and the environment as a means to evaluate and guess cross-cultural perspectives, components, and interpretations of the concept of health (Society for Medical Anthropology, pg. 1). To just introduce Medical Anthropology, I will reiterate highlights of my previous presentations. Early on in Turkey, I asked each person in our program the following question I would like you to tell me about health and what it means to you? The answers to this question varied widely, make it difficult to define a global conception of health. In analyzing the answers, I established the following five components of health Nutrition patterns and lifestyle habits. Environment and biography conditions. Access to and the quality of healthcare provided. Interrelationships among and between patients, medical providers, friend s and family. Causes and impacts of illness. In addition, the concept of health can be seen from two different perspectives. First, as a tool, substance healths value as a form of wealth that should not be taken for granted. Second, health as a product or goal, that people make to reach and maintain. The four goals of my project were to 1) Develop a global conception of health. 2) Acquire a basic understanding of each countrys health system and its individual philosophy of healing. 3) Determine what treatments a culture values, rejects, and the extent to which its people use alternative medicine. Compare and contrast my findings in each country to each otherwise count... ...ion techniques. In addition, research for this project enabled me to identify five essential elements for acquiring cross cultural competency which I will use as guidelines in conflict resolution in my future occupation Valuing diversity Having the capacity for cultural self-assessment Being conscious of the dynamics inherent when cultures interact Having institutionalized culture knowledge Having developed adaptations to service delivery reflecting an understanding of cultural diversity In summary, this independent project has just begun my study of Medical Anthropology and has established a solid background to further my progress toward reaching one of my professional goals to be a collaborative healthcare provider. This goal will be further developed as I begin the nursing program at St. Olafs College next fall.

A Summary of Barbara W. Tuchmans The Guns of August :: Barbara W. Tuchman The Guns of August

A Summary of Barbara W. Tuchmans The Guns of AugustThe Guns of August was written by Barbara W. Tuchman in 1962. The bookdetails the causes of the first World war and describes the first month of the war. The book clearly illustrates how a local war became an entire European grapple by a call to war against Russia. Soon after the war became a world issue. Summary of the BookPlans The Beginning (Chapters 1-5)The book begins at the funeral progress of King Edward VII of England in 1910. This procession contained a glorious array of Kings and Nobles from around the world,this was to be the last. Throughout the procession in that respect are mournful faces, exclusively onemournful face hides happiness. The happiness is of Emperor William II of Germany. Throughout his life and reign, Edward candidly exhibited his love for France over hisneighboring country, Germany. Now that Edward was out of the way, William was currentthat he had earned t he position as the ruler of Europe the entire and would soon takeaction to prove to the rest of the world that Germany was more effective than all. InGermany, the Chief of the German General Staff, Count Alfred von Schlieffen, created aplan of attack in case of the possibility of a two-front war. But, this plan required invading Belgium, which(at the time) was neutral territory and proteced by England,Despite the promise of England to Belgium, Schlieffen continued with his attack plans. He believed that Germanys army was far more powerful and advanced than England,and that there was no reason he should feel threatened. After years of perfecting hisplans, they were finally finished in 1906. Nevertheless after all of those years ofplanning, he failed to justly reinforce the eastern front. Even though he was highlycriticized for this, he stood by his decision stating that he knew the Russians would force the army into the cold harsh, Russian winter, such as the case of Napole on. Even though Schlieffen came up with this wonderful and well thought out plan, his successor, General von Moltke, changed the plans entirely. Like Germany, France also concocted an offensive plan.

Androgyny in James Baldwins Here be Dragons Essays -- Here Dragons

Androgyny in James Baldwins Here be Dragons The piece by James Baldwin titled Here Be Dragons was amazing and I definitely recommend reading it. Baldwins piece is mainly a plea for understanding. He argues that within each person there is a little bit of the opposite for instance, inside every male is a little bit of femininity, just as there is some masculinity within every female. Baldwin also mentions how, many times, the things we fear are things present inside of ourselves that we wish were not. In several instances Baldwin discusses how he was make fun of by men standing in large groups and then once alone the men would try to get Baldwin to have sex with them. I believe those men clung to Baldwin because they felt the homosexual impulse within themselves, and felt that ...

Paying Attention to Rural Education Essay example -- Education Schools

For many communities, particularly rural communities, schools serve as a source of identity. Because of this, the problems that plague rural schools become enough of a problem that they threaten the identity of the community unfortunately, many lawmakers and policymakers in seats of power do not have an intuitive understanding of how rural schools utilization. Policies that work for urban schools, or even suburban schools, can not be assumed to fit the role of a rural school. It is suggested in this article that more(prenominal) attention needs to be paid to rural schools that fly under the radar or have misdiagnosed problems. Even though a greater topic of people argon moving to rural areas from urban environments, nationwide awareness of problems in the rural system is nonexistent. As teachers, it is our job to be aware of the problems in rural schools, and to possibly find creative solutions to these problems. Most importantly, teachers must be aware of how these problems affect our students lives both at home and at school. Because of its relatively small place in the entire American education system, the problems of rural education often go overlooked or generalized to fit the problems of urban and suburban environments. The author makes a point of noting that rural schools are not urban or suburban schools, only set in remote locations, ( 19 McArdle). The author further argues that while rural and urban schools share certain challenges, including the devastating effects of poverty on school children, there are a myriad other problems specific to rural schools, which is why applying an urban model and urban solutions to rural schools simply doesnt work, (19 McArdle). These differing problems include long commutes, transportat... ...at much more crucial in the success of the students and school. Teachers must be mindful of the specific problems in their school and community, creative when finding solutions, and open to finding ways to get on diversity when the curriculum materials are lacking. In order for rural schools to compete with the increasingly global society, it is important for students to gain this kind of multicultural awareness. Urban schools are not the only schools that need focus and attention we need to make sure that we are considering everybody when we talk about public school improvement in America.BibliographyGollnick, Donna M., and Philip C. Chinn. Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall, 2006. Print.McArdle, Elain. Boon, Not Boondock. Harvard Graduate School of Education (2008). Print.

Paying Attention to Rural Education Essay example -- Education Schools

For many communities, particularly rural communities, schools serve as a source of identity. Because of this, the problems that plague rural schools become enough of a problem that they threaten the identity of the community unfortunately, many lawmakers and policymakers in seats of power do not have an intuitive understanding of how rural schools work. Policies that work for urban schools, or even suburban schools, can not be assumed to fit the role of a rural school. It is suggested in this article that more attention inevitably to be paid to rural schools that fly under the radar or have misdiagnosed problems. Even though a greater number of people ar moving to rural areas from urban environments, nationwide awareness of problems in the rural system is nonexistent. As teachers, it is our job to be aware of the problems in rural schools, and to mayhap find creative solutions to these problems. Most importantly, teachers must be aware of how these problems affect our student s lives both at home and at school. Because of its relatively small plate in the entire American education system, the problems of rural education often go overlooked or generalized to fit the problems of urban and suburban environments. The germ makes a point of noting that rural schools are not urban or suburban schools, just now set in remote locations, ( 19 McArdle). The author upgrade argues that while rural and urban schools share certain challenges, including the devastating effects of poverty on school children, there are a myriad otherwise problems specific to rural schools, which is why applying an urban model and urban solutions to rural schools simply doesnt work, (19 McArdle). These differing problems include long commutes, transportat... ...at much more crucial in the success of the students and school. Teachers must be mindful of the specific problems in their school and community, creative when finding solutions, and open to finding ways to promote diver sity when the course materials are lacking. In order for rural schools to compete with the increasingly global society, it is important for students to gain this kind of multicultural awareness. Urban schools are not the only schools that need focus and attention we need to make sure that we are considering everybody when we talk about public school improvement in America.BibliographyGollnick, Donna M., and Philip C. Chinn. Multicultural educational activity in a Pluralistic Society. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall, 2006. Print.McArdle, Elain. Boon, Not Boondock. Harvard Graduate School of Education (2008). Print.

Swot Ryanair

Miriam Mennen An Analysis of Ryanairs incorporated dodge Essay Document Nr. V145623 http//www. grin. com/ ISBN 978-3-640-56879-6 9 783640 568796 world(a) Corporate strategy A casing count on Ryan Air An Analysis of Ryanairs Corporate Strategy Executive Summary Ryanair was founded in 1985 as a family business that originally provided safe answer conventional scheduled respiratory tract go mingled with Ireland and the UK.The airline started to repugn within the confines of the existing industry by trying to sneak customers from their rivals, especially the state monopoly carrier Air Lingus, sketch by Chan Kim and Renee Mauborgne (2004) as Bloody or Red Ocean Strategy. Ryanair seemed to fol pitiful a me-too system according to Osborne, K. (2005), they tried to be all things to all flock. make up they started restructuring their strategy was non enough differentiated and their speak to advantage was too grim to be inventing. In 1986, they got stuck in the middle, ou tlined by Porter (1985) as they had a limited damage advantage and no service advantage.Ryanair hence created a competitive advantage through the alignment of the three components of business systems 1) Creating superior value for their customers (outside perspective) 2) Supplying their superior value- appending activities in an strong and efficient bearing (which jointly form the Value Chain) 3) Possessing over the resource free-base required to discharge the value-adding activities, (inside perspective) According to Porter (1987), merged strategy is what makes the corporate only add up to more than than the sum of its business unit parts. It is seen to be concerned with the overall purpose and scope of the organisation and to meet the expectations of major stakeholders. every last(predicate) aspects of Ryanairs value chain be important to the friendship and their shareholders as Ryanairs decisions add value to two. The following report outlines the three perspectives of shaping Ryanairs business system. The value creation dimension of Ryanairs business baby-sit entrust be outlined, considering the theories of Porter and the more recent authors Kim and Mauborgne (2004).Further, the linkages in the airlines value chain and their resource base will be analysed, considering Hamel and Prahalads (1990) plaza competency model (inside-out approach). 1 global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air In section 2, the future challenges of the airline are considered. Ryanairs forcefulnesss and weaknesses will be analysed, internal value creating factors such as assets, skills or resources, to consider how the airline elicit create alignment to its opportunities and threats, external factors.An stronger outside in approach for Ryanairs future corporate strategy will be considered, applying Porters five forces model, placing the trade, the competition, and the customer at the starting point of the strategy process. I An evaluation of Ryanairs k ey strategic perspectives 1) Creating superior value for their customers The low cost mart constituent Ryanair has found a source of leveraging a competitive advantage the knowledge roughly the opportunities associated with implementing the low cost strategy, which was created by Southwest Airlines.The Texas airline found a unique approach to the securities industry through reconceptualisation of market segments. In 1990, Ryanair successfully employ their model in the European market, becoming a no frills airline, focussing on short haul destinations and keeping its planes in the air as a great deal as possible in a 24 hour period. The impertinently low price market segment, which did not exist before in Europe, could be described as the development of a blue ocean, uncontested market space through the expansion of boundaries of the existing industry, outlined by Kim and Mauborgne (2004).Ryanairs low fares created demand, particularly from fare-conscious leisure and business travellers who king an other(prenominal)wise run through used alternative forms of transportation or would not have travelled at all (Case Study, p. 3). The competition became less relevant and allowed Ryanair to develop and sustain high-pitched performance in an overcrowded industry. Up to now he airline gathers from the early profitable and rapid growth within the blue ocean and successfully executes the low cost business model, which became obvious when the airline announced that it has beaten its own downbeat forecasts to spirit a 29 % increase in pre-tax profits and 19 % passenger growth, having carried more than 27. 6 million passengers in the past financial twelvemonth (Jameson, A. , 2005). 2 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air Ryanairs position within the industry However, blue oceans are not easily protected and Ryanair has been facing competitors that try to copy their low cost approach.Further, Ryanair has al styles been competing within the red ocea n, by targeting a broad throw bump off of customers, e. g. the business segment and stealing customer from rivals. This outlines that Kim and Mauborgnes strategy approach laughingstocknot be seen as exclusive. Competing with new entrants of competitors (and differentiators), Ryanair was able to launch an all out struggle, lowering prices and remaining profitable whilst change magnitude the frequency of flights and establishing new routes (Case Study). According to Porter (1980, 1985), the relative competitive position within an industry lies at the amount of money of success or failure of blottos.He defined both basics types of competitive advantage cost leaders and differentiation (and focus). Ryanair set out to be outperform in the budget market segment, becoming the lowest cost airline in its industry (cost focus), e. g. no paper fines, no passenger meals, no pre-arranged seating, enable to cope and remain profitable, even up on low yields. The airline constantly striv es to bring down or control four of the primary expenses involved in tally a major scheduled airline their aircraft equipment costs, effect productivity, customer service costs, airport access and treatment costs.The airline deals successfully with competitive forces and is Europes leader in low fares by generating a superior return on investment (Osborne, 2005). This supports Mintzbergs argument of price leadership being more relevant to competitive advantage than cost leadership. Planning to turn into a no-fares-airline by offering flights for free (Case Study), Ryanair wad be argued to follow price leadership as one of the six ways to differentiation outlined by Minzberg.According to Mr O Leary (2005), new planes will enable him to drive down average fares by 5% a year cavictimization a bloodbath. We are going to show up in your market and trash your yields. (Ryanair rolls out plans for European domination, 2005). Differentiation through price outlines the superseding of Por ters generic wine strategies by the resource/competence-based strategy frameworks. In addition to low prices, Ryanairs branding emphasises on punctuality and efficiency, which is mainly achieved through operating from secondary airports.According to Ryanair, their success is not just due to their low fares precisely also a kind combination of our No. 1 on-time record, our friendly and efficient people and our new Boeing 737-800 series aircraft (Ryanair, 2005). It can therefore be argued that in a globalized competitive environment, even cost leaders need to differentiate 3 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air their message ( mark strategy), contradicting Porters original idea of fundamentally different routes to competitive advantage.International expansion Ryanair barely constantly created value for customers by following generic growth and world(prenominal)isation strategies they moved their operations into more and more countries, expanding the route system f rom its primarily Irish-UK emphasis to serve 86 destinations on 133 routes across 16 countries. According to Mr. O Leary (2005), they will deliver 34m passengers from 12 European bases and have identified a further 48 potential bases. The airline expanded latterly by placing an order for 70 more Boeing 737-800 aircraft to keep growing at 20% a year (Ryanair rolls out plans for European domination, 2005).Ryanair can compete on price, as the airline has besides its low cost product offering an practise system and resource base that match the price positioning, diametral to traditional airlines that seem to get stuck in the middle, as outlined by Porter, when undergoing severe cost cutting which affects their areas of differentiation, e. g. Aer Lingus. 2) Supplying superior value-adding activities in an effective and efficient manner The Value Chain As Ryanairs low cost/price pproach leads to overlapping value chains, the conjunction is a perfect practice session of linking its o pportunities, as outlined by Campbell and Goold (1998, in Meyer and de Witt, 2004). From a Value Based heed point of view, Porters Value Chain framework can be seen as one of two dimensions in maximizing corporate value creation, outlining how well a company performs relatively towards its competitors (Relative Competitive Position). Even Ryanair subscribes to a similar basic model compared to e. g. Easyjet, the airline has an entirely different value chain.Ryanairs low cost/price approach adds value to most of Ryanairs processes, e. g. clear corporate identity and brand image in addition to limited organisational complexity, increasing the differentiation towards their competitors. Ryanair maintains their efficient, high quality and low cost services through operating from secondary airports and by exploiting the advantages of outsourcing, a strategic management model, transferring the business processes of services to outside firms, e. g. passenger and aircraft handling, ticketin g. This allows the 4 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air ompany to achieve competitive rates at fixed prices and to baulk focused on its core competencies. Further, outsourcing can improve customer satisfaction (primary activity), mitigate risks, and add value to their reputation, accessed skills and technology, increased overall visibility of accounting and performance (controlled infrastructure), and avoided seat of government investments. Their strategy is to deliver the shell customer service performance in its peer group, having just six staff in their customer care department one for every two million passengers compared to British Airways which has 10 times the coverage (Ryanair, 2005).Porters Value Chain Firm Infrastructure Support Activities Human Resource Management scientific Development Procurement M g ar in Primary Activities The technology of the companys Internet booking system allowed to capture more value from its operations, to improve its conta ct with its customers (outbound logistics) and to increase control over the quality of their services. According to Mr OLeary (2005), Ryanair saves 15% on the price of every ticket by using direct booking through the internet.For the fiscal year terminate March 31, 2004, Ryanair generated virtually all of its scheduled passenger revenues through direct gross revenue (Ryanair, 2005). only value-creating activities that transform the inputs into the final service of Ryanair are kept extremely lean. Ryanair does not interlink its operations with competitors, avoiding costs of trough service and delays and their Human Resource Management is tailored to continually improving the productivity of its already highly-productive work force whilst controlling their labour costs. 5 M Logistics Logistics ar gi n InboundOperations outward-bound Marketing & Sales Service Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air Ryanair focuses on centralised recruitment and training. In the year end ed March 31, 2004 productivity calculated on the basis of passengers booked per employee continued to improve by 21% on the year ended March 31, 2003 (Ryanair, 2005). Ryanair emphasizes on modest base salaries and productivity-based pay incentives, including commissions for on-board sales of products for flight attendants and payments based on the number of hours or sectors flown by pilots and cabin crew personnel.Employees can participate in Ryanairs stock option programs (worth up to 5% of the share of the company, Ryanair 2005). Ryanair even adds value to their low cost reputation through the refusal to love trade unions whilst having a competitive advantage over the heavily unionised nature of employment of the state owned Aer Lingus. (Ethical considerations, outlined in section 2). Ryanair has extremely low airport access fees by focusing on secondary and regional airport destinations that offer competitive cost terms, e. g. ess expensive outdoor embarkation stairs, and allow for higher rates of on-time departures, faster turnaround times, fewerer terminal delays, which maximises aircraft utilisation, eases restriction on slot requirements and on the number of allowed takeoffs and landings, adding value to customer satisfaction. Ryanair further added value to their infrastructure, procurement and reputation through negotiating favourable contracts with Boeing (inbound logistics) knowledge that is difficult to codify and replicate for competitors, as it is not only observable facts or info but complex and difficult to specify (core competence).Ryanair is said to be paying less than half the Boeings list price of $66m each (Money Telegraph, 2005). The procurement with Boeing 737-800s allows the airline to benefit from synergies through fleet commonality, limited costs associated with training (Human Resources), maintenance efficiency, and greater flexibility in the scheduling of crews and equipment (inbound logistics). Again, the new aircrafts provide t he newest technology blended winglets that reduce drag and drive down 2% of the fuel cost, driving down the average fares by 5% a year (O Leary, 2005).Ryanairs business model as a whole is distinct, having an entirely different configuration altogether, in relation to their competitors in the airline industry, increasing the barriers to imitation or substitution. According to Teece, Pisano and Shuen (1997, in Meyer and de Witt, 2004, p. 253), even if competitors are successful at identifying embedded competences and imitating them, the company with and initial lead can work at upgrading its competences in a race to stay ahead (Dynamic capabilities view).Ryanair seems to have outpaced their 6 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air competitors through upgrading its resources, activity system and product offering more rapidly, as outlined by Gilber and Strebel (1989). Ryanairs unique firm resource their knowledge of demand for the low cost airlines, made it possible to imp lement their strategy before others and to benefit from first mover advantage, outlined by Lieberman and Montgomery (1988). ) The resource base required to perform the value-adding activities Ryanairs resource heterogeneity In general, the airline industry is characterised by supply side similarity (Kay, 1993, in Meyer and de Wit, 2004), as only marginal differences between air carriers can be displayed, particularly in a deregulated environment. Ryanairs business model was designed to challenge the limitations of these constraints. The airline focuses on value-adding process or resources, which piss them a superior position relative to its competitors and which seems most appropriate to draw boundaries in the airline industry.Ryanairs internal characteristics are most relevant in achieving sustained competitive advantage, outlined by Barney (1986, 1991). In contrast to Porter, Barney assumes that firms within an industry or group may develop long-term superior resources that can b e protected in their mobility across firms by some form of isolating mechanism. According to the resource based view already outlined by Edith Penrose (1959, in Meyer and de Wit, 2004) and extended by Wernerfelt (1984, n Meyer and de Wit, 2004), Ryanair can be argued to have a sustained competitive advantage, as their competitors in the same segment are unable to duplicate the benefits of their strategy. The winner-takes-all dynamic (Case Study, p. 15) in the low cost segment, seems to have only worked in combination with this first mover advantage. Ryanairs assets, e. g. their capabilities and attributes, are not successfully implemented by any current or potential competitor, e. g. negotiation for airport deals, employee contracts and fleet prices.Budget airlines that attempted to enter Ryanairs market segment lost money or were taken over, e. g. Gos foray into Dublin (Case Study). Their main competitor easyJet has carefully differentiated by focussing on different geographical ma rkets and higher value through meliorate transfer situations of main airports, addressing the business segment. However, Ryanairs external environment, e. g. a saturated market and changing customer demands, can threaten Ryanairs future growth (outlined in section 2). 7 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan AirRyanairs Core Competence Approach Ryanair can be argued to follow the core competencies model of Hamel and Prahalad (1990), (inside-out perspective), as they build their strategy around their strength of distinctive competences, which offers an attractive base of competitive advantage, e. g. secondary airport approach. Ryanair competitiveness derives from an ability to build their competences at lower cost and more speedily than competitors. The historical sources of Ryanairs advantage are to be found in OLearys ability to consolidate corporate-wide skills into competencies.Ryanair has strong relationships with their suppliers and a strong corporate identity. The airline can be argued to follow a strategic stretch as they are overall resource led and create new opportunities, e. g. ancillary services. powerfully focussing on their core competences allowed for high strategic capability and potential access to a wide variety of markets, making a significant ploughshare to the perceived customer benefits of the end service and limiting the risk of imitation. The corporate centre tightly controls and co-ordinates by enunciating the strategic architecture that guides the competence acquisition process, e. . outsourcing. Ryanairs resources include all means at the disposal for the performance of value-adding activities, e. g. through the acquisition of Buzz in 2003 (Case Study, p. 5), the airline gained a range of resources, e. g. know how, outlined by Preece as learning. The airline benefited from increased infrastructure and value-chain activities (leaning), integrated operations (leveraging), closer co-ordination of their vertical activities (leaping), expanded market opportunities and reduced competitive pressure (locking out). Resources comprise of tangible assets, e. g.Ryanair owns all of its aircraft and holds net cash of 286 million euros (Money-telegraph, 2005), leading to the advantages that large firms have from large volumes enabling them to spread their costs (economies of scale), and intangible assets, e. g. the human capital skills, competences and capabilities. Ryanairs resource heterogeneity towards their competitors hinders other firms to conceive and implement the cost focus strategy, as outlined by Barney. Ryanair takes advantage of leveraging its resources, e. g. relationships and reputation, which are not readily transferable.They are inheritably attributed to OLeary and his team and are influenced by the airlines culture and governance. Ryanair possesses over a range of funny value-adding stories which defined their past, e. g. how Mr OLeary went to war, driving in a military jeep to his competitor (Case Study). Personal involvement in battles of OLeary against lobbying politicians, EU commissioners and competitors are part of the company culture and promote their aggressive 8 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air low cost image.Ryanairs reputation for commitment to Safety and Quality Maintenance, not having a single incident involving major injury to passengers or flight crew in its 20- year operating history (Case Study), is another value adding aspect. Ryanairs distinct activity system provides the base for competitive advantage and raises the barriers to imitation. In conclusion, Ryanair does not follow a linear inside out or outside in approach. On the one hand, the airline continual upgrades its unique resources on the other hand, it occupies specific market positions to emain competitive, creating superior value by closely fitting their services to customers needs and focussing on a relatively limited set of businesses and markets (narrow competitive sc ope). Ryanair more and more focuses on exploiting market opportunities in their business environment though, e. g. expansion and horizontal integration, leaving their original organic growth model and benefiting from all aspects of the framework of international strategic alliances, outlined by Preece. External forces, e. g. he industry deregulation in 1997 that allowed the airline to go Continental and the technological advancement of the internet, also potently influenced the airlines success story (external value adding activities). Ryanir can be argued to have a discrete organisation perspective, emphasising on competition over co-operation, having high talk terms power and a highly independent approach with distinct firm boundaries. The airline has an essentially logical structure, characterised by planning and control, prediction and forecasting.Especially in relation to the dynamic hostile environment, the airline has a relatively deliberate strategy that is based on ratio nal thinking. The limited complexity of the system is characterised by few organisational levels and centralisation. The airline benefits from the entrepreneurial spirit of O Leary who seemed to understand the activities that are likely to have a significant impact on Ryanair and that build expensive internal linkages within the boundaries of their business model (organisational leadership perspective). So far, he was highly successful in understanding the low cost attributes that made Ryanair unique. Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air II An evaluation of the future strategic direction of the company The sustainability of a firms competitive advantage is said to be threatened by the development in the market. Customer needs and wants are in constant flux. The study analysis of Ryanair, a tool for analyzing the internal strengths and weaknesses and the external opportunities and threats (see Appendix), outlined the paradox for Ryanair of creating alignment either f rom the outside-in (market-driven strategy) or from the inside-out resource driven strategy). So far, Ryanair has been strongly focussing on their core competences. Considering their environment, opportunities and threats, as the starting point when determining their strategy (outside-in perspective), is crucial though to re-check the fit between their competitive advantage and the environment, as outlined by Rumelt, (1980). The model of environmental consonance seems of great importance to the airline, outlining the requirement of continual adaptation of the business system to the demands and new opportunities in the market place.As outlined by Leonar-Barton (1995), Ryanairs core competences seem to be simultaneously Ryanairs core rigidities, locking them out of new opportunities (in Meyer and de Wit, p. 253), e. g. Ryanairs Dublin saga, the compress over the desired second low cost terminal at Dublin airport instead of considering the creation of a new lucrative base in continent al Europe, threatening easyJets. Ryanair should consider market development, outlined by Ansoff, e. g. Greece and Turkey, which have a combined population of around 70 million people and offer extremely profitable market opportunities through year-round and holiday flights.The airline should further initiate additional routes from the U. K. or Ireland to other locations in continental Europe that are currently served by higher-cost, higher-fare carriers. Market opportunities of new domestic routes within EU countries, especially new member countries, and increased frequency of service on its existing routes will allow Ryanair to remain focussed on low cost/price and prolong its unprecedented and high levels of growth without jeopardising their core competences. Rivalry among existing players could be reduced by damaging the package tourism industry, e. . Thomas Cook, Lunn Polly and Neckerman (Porters 5 forces). Further acquisitions should be considered in the long-term. Ryanair seem s to have enough power to counter agreement the demands of buyers and suppliers, to outperform rival airlines in their market segment, and to discourage new firms from entering the business. Their main 10 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air challenge will be threatening easyJet in its home market, currently serving Athens, and to fend off the Value for money segment that threatens to substitute Ryanairs services (Porters 5 forces).The industry attractiveness for long-term profitability, outlined by Porter (1985), will have a strong influence on Ryanairs profitability. Porter had ignored the aspect that differentiation strategies can be used to increase sales volumes rather than to charge a premium price. With negative forecast for the low price market, with growth rates of no more than 20 to 25 % of the be market, market saturation is said to be not far off for budget airlines in Western Europe (Ottink, 2004). Instead of the lowest price, the optimal balance between service and price is seen to be the growth market of the future.Value market share will eventually hover around 60 % of the total market (Ottink, 2004). Regarding this threat, the main challenge will be to respond to changing demands and at the same time to ensure consistency, effectiveness and the coherence of Ryanairs low cost strategy. At this stage, Ryanair should not compete on service advantage by entering the value market, turning into a portfolio organisation. They should so far seek for other niches, than compromise their low cost approach by reactively adapting to the unpredictable development in the current market.Retrenchment involves cutting back to focus on your best lines, oftentimes referred to this as sticking to the knitting. Ryanair should consider the mistakes of their competitors entering new market segments, e. g. Lufthansa by offering deeply discounted flights to Mallorca and Nice, standing up to easyJet. Ryanair should therefore further enlist in market pe netration and strengthen their market development approach, rather than diversify their services, as outlined by Ansoff (Product Market Framework).However, Ryanair should be aware that its knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual inorganization and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information, as outlined by Davenport and Prusack. Even the companys formula has been highly successful in the last decades Ryanair has to check whether their organisational routines are still valid in the new markets (double or tripleloop learning), e. g. the way Mr OLeary aggressively promotes the low cost strategy.Especially in the new EU member countries his practices, which are said to threaten industrial peace and put EU ministers at unease, need to be revised. 11 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air The self interest of Ryanair might be best served by developing attitudes to ethical issues before the y become acute, as the airline is especially vulnerable to hostile campaigns (Value Chain). Ryanair should consider ethical corporate behaviour and social responsibility, currently facing the paradox of profitability (shareholder value perspective) and responsibility (stakeholder value perspective), e. . policies regarding disabled passengers, employee rights and environmental standards. At the moment, the simplicity inside the company does not seem to match Ryanairs complex environment. Ryanair has to differentiate its message to fend off competitors, e. g. the airline should consider the co-operation with environmental organisations, offering passengers the possibility to pay the price of competitors in the value segment and paying the difference to the original Ryanair price to an organisation that invests in solar energy to reduce the world emissions.Ryanairs Boeings could be green and the message should be flying cheap and doing good. Customers that might otherwise have switche d to the value segment do not musical theme the voluntary environmental charge and are likely to accept more difficult transfer situations for the feeling of doing good. This differentiation aspect will add value to the companys reputation and public relations. Ryanair can become the first mover in an industry that will sooner or later need to address the issue of emissions. Creativity and radical innovation are a strategic orientation to sustained competitive advantage.Ryanair should further consider the involvement of employees in the search for unsatisfied customer demand, as outlined by Kim and Mauborgne (2004). relax exchange and flow of information will foster new seminal knowledge and help the airline to continually transform itself, e. g. the contact between flight attendants and management should be increased to foster a climate of receptivity and trust and to capture opportunities. The concept of organisational learning, as outlined by Senge (1990) and extended by Ped ler, Bourgoyne and Boydell (1991) and Wang and Ahmed (2003), is crucial to nurture new and expansive patterns of thinking. 2 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air References Barney, J. (1991). Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. Journal of Management. Vol. 17, No. 1, p. 99120 Oklahoma submit University. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. third ed. London Thomson Learning. Campbell and Goold (1998). Why Links Between telephone circuit Units Often Fail and How to Make Them Work. Capstone Publishing Ltd, Oxford. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context.An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. Gilber, X. and Strebel, P. (1989). From Innovation to Outpacing. Business Quarterly. Summer pp. 19-22. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C. K. (1990). The Core Competence of the Corporation. May-June 1990. Vol 68. Harvard Business School Publishing.In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. Jameson, A. (2005). Ryanair confident of European goal. Internet Times Online. Available from (http//business. timesonline. co. uk/article/0,,8209-1635966,00. html). 01/06/2005 Kay, J. (1993). invertebrate foot s of Corporate Success How Business Strategies add value. Oxford Oxford University Press. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning.Kim, W. C. and Mauborgne, R. (1999). Strategy, Value Innovation, and the Knowledge Economy. Sloan Management Review. 40 (3), pp. 41-54. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004 ). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. Kim, C. and Mauborgne, R. (2005). Blue Ocean Strategy How to Create Uncontested Market Space and Make the Competition Irrelevant. Boston Harvard Business School Press. Liebermann, M. B. and Montgomery, D. B. (1988). First Mover Advantages. Strategic Management Journal. 9 (1), pp. 41-58. In De Wit, B. nd Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. Porter, M. E. (1980, 1988). Competitive Strategy Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors. The Free Press. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. 13 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air Marquardt, M. and Reynolds, A. (1994). The Global Learning Organization Gaining Competitive Advantage through Continuous Learning. New York. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. Money Telegraph (2005) Ryanair lands better result than forecast. Internet. Available from (http//money. telegraph. co. uk/money/main. jhtml? xml=/money/2005/02/25/cnryanair25. xml) 5 June 2005. Osborne, A. (2005). Ryanair rolls out plans for European domination. Internet. Business Telegraph Available from (http//www. telegraph. co. uk/money/main. jhtml? xml=/money/2005/02/25/cnryanair25. ml enuId=242=/ portal/2005/02/25/ixportal. html). 1 June 2005 Ottink, F. (2004). Winner in the wrong market. Internet. Yeald Available from (http//www. yeald. com/Yeald/a/29541/ryanair__winner_in_the_wrong_market. html) 5 June 2005 Rumelt, R. P. (1980). The Evaluation of Business Strategy. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. Ryanair (2005). Strategy. Internet. Available from (http//www. ryana ir. com/ web site/about/invest/docs/Strategy. pdf). 27 May 2005 Teece, D. J. , Pisano, G. , and Shuen, A. (1997). Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management. Strategic Management Journal. 18 (7). Pp. 509-533. In De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004). Strategy Process, Content, Context. An International Perspective. 3rd ed. London Thomson Learning. 14 Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air Appendix SWOT- Analysis Strength Quality processes and procedures features important to the clientele, e. g. punctuality, few cancellations, few lost bags, frequent departures, baggage handling and consistent on-time services. low cost low fares approach (differentiated service) Low aircraft equipment costs Lower maintenance costs and low depreciation costs due to ownership of aircrafts Fleet commonality Focus on low cost alternative airports low airport access and handling costs Low customer service costs Internet booking system avoiding costly systems, commissions and sales headc ount Low marketing costs tax enhancing and cost-cutting features, e. g. no seat pockets to allow faster turnaround times Relationships to suppliers strong bargaining position with respect to aircraft procurement, e. g. argain price of Buzz acquisition, airport deals and staff recruitment Concentration on core business through outsourcing Low labour cost through performance related pay structure high personnel productivity / staff efficiency ratio Overall high value and profitability Location of business focus on Europes largest airline market the UK, in particular the London Area Increased take-off and landing slots trough acquisition of Buzz, KLM subsidiary Increased number of seats per plane, enabling lower individual fares but higher per plane income Short turn-around times increasing the available operational hours per plane. Strong brand and low fare reputation -foreign exchange hedging in transactions involving the euro, UK sterling and the US$ Weaknesses falls in fare yields Transfer situations from Airports reputation no non-essential extras falling load factors due to continuing decline in unit costs Decreasing frequency of flights due to need for high load factors, reducing business travel climate protecting charge on aircraft taking off and landing in the EU, environmental fee might double no-frills operators fares, disproportionately greater effect on budget airlines Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility 15Global Corporate Strategy A Case Study on Ryan Air Opportunities initiating additional routes from the U. K. or Ireland to other locations in continental Europe, currently served by higher-cost, higher-fare carriers Developing European market for budget sector with large population base / expansion into 10 new EU states New domestic routes within continental Europe. Strongly moving into intercontinental business using the principle of simplification and cherry picking increasing the frequency of service on its existin g routes considering possible acquisitions that may become available in the future, e. . Lufthansa connecting airports within its existing route network -Exploiting profitable destinations with both a tourist as well as business segment Conversion from low fares to a no-fares airline Fall in average ticket price and increased threat of entry for competitors loosening of regulations Decreasing competition Increased ancillary service revenues Increasing in-flight sales on longer flights employee fealty focus on environmental issues innovative marketing for differentiationThreats Limited market in the North of Europe resulting in low occupancy levels and efficiency of purpose of planes Tougher competition from the traditional and charter airlines which offer cheap hard to beat all-in holiday packages in continental Europe. New competitors in home market interlingual rendition of Ryanairs business model by competitors and innovative substitute services Incumbent airlin es selectively copying the tactics of Ryanairs on competition routes niggling potential markets high speed trains, subsidised by the state in GER and France, high speed rail plan in Benelux region -good highway connections in the major market around cities in the Middle and Southern Europe Scarcity of appropriate located, low cost airports around major cities / decreased bargaining power of airlines Price war increasing landing charges Dependency on world jet fuel prices war and terrorism epidemics EU commission decisions lobbying politicians formation of a trade union for pilots the weakness of sterling against the euro Mergers between competitors, e. g. Air France and

Dramatic Monologue Essay

Black, black, black, that is all I can see. My cold, legs froze as I attempted to walk forward through the icy mist of the repulsiveness. The darkness didnt frighten me, my eyes focused on the beam of unprovoked that reflected of the tips of my shoes. To take my mind off the survey of being alone, I close my eyes, and imagination of what I could be here for. I continued to close my eyes but the idea of being alone made it hard to concentrate. The air round me felt lifeless, I clenched my fist, to give me the feeling as if someone else was here with here with me.I could only hear the accelerated speed at which my heart was beating. I have never felt like this since I was in high school, when I tried out for the school cross unsophisticated team. My legs became stiffer than they were before. I bit my tongue and drew back a breath relieving myself of the pain I could feel riding up the sides of my legs. The pain then became likewise much for myself to handle, I bit my tongue ha rder and harder as the pain got worse. Suddenly the pain was gone and the feeling of relief over whelmed me.I sat on the floor, the beam sat beside me it seemed the light was my only source of comfort in dark. My memory of home, the place I once was, is hazy but kept me from losing come to with reality. The thoughts of Catherine waiting for me aft(prenominal) work and Beatrice preparing dinner on the stove warmed my heart. But not all my memories were like this, they were once filled with fear and disappointment. put up home, in Sicily, I once had dreams of coming to America and living the American dream, which the people of my village used to speak of.But being the oldest it was hard to be positive, and living in house for 3 with a family of 8 didnt help either. My village was poor because of the war so it made it harder for people to define work. While my father worked during the day, as a fisherman, I and the other children played in handle behind my house. The feelings I ex perienced playing in the fields were nothing like feelings I felt at home. I laid on my back, head pumping as though I had been trying to study goal minute for a test. The gash on my chest, which was oddly shaped like an ear, was stinging under the pressure of my shirt.I tried to remember what I had thought about before the pain kicked in. The dream of me dying felt so real. there was me on the floor surrounded by people I knew I thought harder. there people from around the block, and some I have never seen before.. and the warm voice. the voice of Beatrice stood out from the rest. I thought harder and tried to remember what was going on .. all I could remember was the sound of people screaming my name and a pool of blood, that was rotate from the bottom of my stairs to the side of the pavement.I was then clear of what I was here for. I stood up, tore the picture of Katie I had around my neck and tossed it into the light. The light then vanished and it became completely dark. It was her Katie she is the reason why Im here. It was wrong, the feelings I felt for her that is the reason Im here. I was supposed to look after her not fall in love with her. The jealousy I felt when I saw her with Rodolfo drove me to become this way it was the thought of her being interpreted away from me really got to me.But I cant put the blame on him. It was me. All me. I laid back on my back, closed my eyes and laid completely still. If I was to wake and find myself in the pits of hell I wouldnt be surprised. But if I were to wake up, disguised in the arms of my love, I would take my own life then and there. So that my family could live on happy and not have to worry about how I could screw up their lives. This is the gift I give to you, my family a life to live without the thought of me.

Charity Essay

Charity is supposed to be a selfless act done by passel who pack nothing in return for their help except for the feeling of having helped someone in need. Charity has changed from an act of nobility or kindness to a way of looking good in front of other hatful or to bring forth some type of material reward or to receive some type of tax reduction as done by big companies who prefer Donating $100,000 and then save $300,000 in tax reductions for helping erupt a such noble cause.Charity should be what it used to be a SELFLESS cause period, not just a win-win situation in which two parties benefit from it, it should be done because you want to do it out of the kindness of your heart not because it forget get you a C- on the class youre failing or, because you want to look good in front of someone, it should be done because you want to help the people in need. For example my five class old cousin Jerry, at his age you would expect him to blow all of his money on games, toys or oth er things kids like, but no he doesnt.He saves up all his allowance for months at the clock and then one he feels he has an amount that seems big enough to help someone he will goes online to see what charities convince him to donate his money on them, so far he has donated over fifth teen hundred dollars to over ten diametrical charities that vary from animals in danger of extinction to research for AIDS and even Cancer, and he started doing it all by himself, not because someone expected it from him, not because he wanted to look good in front of other people he did it because he wanted to make help people in need, people who dont have as much as we do, people who have had the bitter side of life as my little cousin would say.One time he went on and went asking door by door all over town until he had knocked on every single door in his town (with his moms supervision of course) and gathered up a good nine hundred dollars he could donate to a research on way to obstruct miscarri ages, and in my opinion more people should be like my cousin and walk that extra mile to help people without the need to receive a reward in order to do what he feels is right. Charity should be a selfless act, and not this sempiternal cycle in which people expect a reward for everything they do.

Ethno Religious Crisis in Nigeria: Causes and Remedy.

ETHNO RELIGIOUS CRISIS IN NIGERIA CAUSES AND REMEDY. BY MUHAMMAD GAMBO ISGOGO HASSAN ADAMU MAKUKU UMAR HAMIDU ALIYU ABSTRACT Introduction Nigeria is no doubtfulness a populous nation of allplace 88 million (1991 population census) but as at now Nigerias population is estimated to be higher up 120 million people of diverse heathenish groups and m any(prenominal) religions. Its people ar differently distributed in the 36 states that make up the nation. In summation to this, the nation is blessed drolleryh many frugal potentialities which help in the movement of the various peoples through the process of economic inter-dependence.Though a climb ups with human and natural resources, the terra firma has since independence witnessed a number of inter and intra cultural and ghostlike crisis which continue to be an impediment to its oer e truly development. The causes of conflicts mingled with and within ethnic and sacred groups could be seen in a number of factors, such as way s of propagating the religions, mistrust and suspicion between the followers of the various religious and ethnic groups, selfishness ignorance and intolerance amongst the dickens groups.References be make in the sanctum sanctorum books, such as the Glorious Quran and the Holy Bible on their teachings showing how if fully adhered to, the nation will be in intermission. In this respect, the prevailing crisis might non be un- connected with the deviation of the teachings of these religions by their followers. In the paper, causes of these crises atomic number 18 discussed and about suggestions are provided which if fittingly implement will serve as remedies to both(prenominal) ethnic and religious crisis in the nation. Ethnic Crisis In Nigeria.In the words of Eleazu the people of Nigeria are many and alter1. Actu every outlast(predicate)y, a nation with a population of over 120 million people now and about 391 different ethnic groups2 with divergent socio-political, econom ic, cultural and religious backgrounds could be termed a nation of many and varied peoples. With this heterogametic nature. Nigeria has indeed, become a melting pot where social conflicts and especi completelyy of ethnic nature are bound to occur. Causes of ethnic crisis in Nigeria are many comprising of both long and short term factors.There had been in the past for example, serious inter-ethnic rivalry to secure slaves for both domestic use and trans-Atlantic slave trade and secondly, there were wars of expanding the territories of the various states, kingdoms and empires that made up what is today Nigeria. These wars were the predominant activities of the various ethnic groups which became a factor of mordacious relationship amongst them in the past. This situation of enmity between the various ethnic groups was according to Ryder From the 18th century onwards when the slave trade supplied weapons that made these conflicts more than destructive.Internally, a sharpening of divi sions within societies is well attested3. These wars caused serious insecurity so that many old towns were relocated in mountainous areas or mass defensive walls were constructed to parry the intrusion of enemies. It is worth noning that these earlier conflicts were sponsored by the European slavers. In this way ace could say, the seed for such conflicts was planted right in the period in the lead colonial rule. Slave trade on its own was an inhuman act and and so a terrorist act.In the colonial period, the colonial system of dividing what is today Nigeria into trinity administrative units had contributed greatly in shaping the put day relationship of suspicion, fear and mistrust among the divergent ethnic groups in the country. The administrative units were-Lagos colony, Southern associated state and Northern protectorate, in this arrangement, the nitrogen was excluded from the central administration. This exclusion was to later have a serious implication on the relationsh ip between the people of the north and those of the South, (East and West).The implication became more pronounced when in 1914, the three administrative units were amalgamated. This action was marked by mutual suspicion and sometimes extend conflict between the diversed ethnic groups. One could say at this juncture that, this suspicion and fear still shapes the relationship between the peoples of these various corners of the country. This is also the genesis of the subsequent crisis of ethnic nature in Nigeria. Today, Nigerians feel insecure in the regions other than their own.The sectional feeling advance manifests itself clearly in the unhealthy competition in all aspects of the authorities between the peoples of the North, West and East. Tensions between these peoples become more and more intensified with each trying to protect its sectional refer. On this note, Awolowo, cited in Ekeh, P. P. and Osaghae, E. E. explosive detection system blamed the British For dividing the No rth from the South so thoroughly and effectively that the two were divergently and almost irreconcilably oriented4With Federalism which was instituted to primarily to avoid one ethnic group predominate others and also protecting the interests of the minorities, the nation was once again split into regions, each with its autonomous power. In this political arrangement also, it was observed that The colonial administrators have passed on to the Nigerian wards the prejudices which had enabled them think and act in the belief that this informal federation was a marriage of convenience between incompatibles 5.With this impression in the minds of Nigerian peoples, it becomes very difficult for them to work harmoniously together without such tribal conflicts. Each of the tribes of the country today works only for the interest of its people and not the nation, thus in these blind competitions of each trying to dominate the other, conflicts of ethnic nature ever so occur. Clear testimony t o this was that the political parties of the first Republic were regionally organise Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), was for the North, Action Group (AG) was for the West (Yoruba) duration NationalCouncil of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) was for the East (Igbo). Equally the major parties of the second republic were only the renascence of those of the first republic, National Party of Nigeria (NPN) for example replicated the NPC, United Party of Nigeria (UPN) was the AG incarnate while the National Peoples Party (NPP) replicated the NCNC. Each of these worked tirelessly to protect the interest of its geopolitical zone, and in so doing, conflicts occur.A case to mention here was the coup and counter coup of January and July 1966 which came about as a result of the absent pride, greed, selfishness and shortcomings of the members of these three regions. The wound inflicted by the Nigerian civil war did not heal properly as there are still moves for secession in the country. Minority iss ues in Nigeria are also seen as one important phenomenon which causes ethnic conflicts in the country. These minority tribes were once neglected in the socio-political and economic personal matters of the country.Nigeria was seen and regarded as the home of only three tribes Hausa/Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba. But later even Arthur Richard cited in Ekeh, P. P and Osaghae, E. E confirmed that It is only accident of British suzerainty which has made Nigeria one country or one nation socially, economically and even politically, there are deep differences between the major ethnic groups. They do not speak the same language and they have highly divergent customs and ways of life and they represent stages of culture. 6 From the 1950s till date, the reality of Nigerian problem started to unfold.Many minority ethnic groups began to feature in the sharp competitions in the entire aspects of government. This is done through the formation of their own political parties and associations in order to out do the activities of major ethnic groups whom they regard and see as threats to their economic and political aspirations. This suspicion and fear by the minority tribes over the major tribes remain a prominent feature in the Nigerian socio-political and economic activities and have in no small measure helped in intensify ethnic crisis in the country.The desire to harness and utilize the deity given economic potentials distributed in all parts of the country made the movements and permanent s legislatepage of different tribes in different regions of the country inevitable. Socio-political and economic relations that follow, crisis of leadership result in serious clashes between many tribes. In 2002 for example, there was a serious conflict between the Yoruba and Hausa over the leadership of a cattle market in Bodija, Ibadan and in Jos, the conflict is still on between the Hausa and some tribes over who has the legal right of chieftaincy.Cases of this nature are numerous and to o many to be mentioned here. One mess also still see the traces of the British administration in Nigeria on the issue of sectionalism. It is worth mentioning that after forty four (44) years of independence and despite several calls for discipline unity, associations of purely tribal interest are established in the country. In the West, there is the Ooduwa Peoples Congress (OPC) for purely Yoruba people, in the East, there is the Ohaneze (Ndi Igbo) purely for Igbo people, while in the North, there is Arewa advisory Forum for the northern peoples.It should be noted that all these associations have been established to directly and openly protect the interests of their respective peoples. Where their interests clash, it results to conflicts. Many ethnic crises in Nigeria are as a result of the activities of these associations. It is very disheartening to add that these tribal associations and other purely tribally motivated movements are directly supported and sponsored by top servi ng and retired government personalities.These supports only help in fueling crisis of ethnic nature in the country. Worst still, is that security and law en tweetment agents always take sides when playacting any national assignment of peace keeping. These agents openly support their people even if they are the offenders. This issue is no doubt causing further ethnic crisis and even escalating the existing ones. One cannot also delink this problem of ethnic crisis with the activities of the area boys who emerge suddenly as the result of the growing unemployment in the country.These groups of unemployed, misguided, disgruntled and unpatriotic teenagers unnecessarily cause commotions and misunderstanding under the pretext of tribal issues to enable them loot and steal private and public property. Area boyism is therefore a force to reckon with in causing tribal conflicts in the country. But it is worth mentioning here that some of the activities of these area boys are mostly engineere d and sponsored by the selfish, greedy and unpatriotic politicians who by all means and at all cost wan to win election or cause unnecessary commotions.Under the pretext of tribalism, they therefore incite such crises in the country. Wrong and blown-up information by the press and the media houses sometimes form the background for tribal conflicts in the country. Such exaggerated news will only spark up some ethnic groups to avenge on some innocent victims. Almizan of 16th Zulkida 1420 for example reported that over 2000 Hausa people were killed by the Igbo in the East to avenge the killings of Igbo in Kaduna7. The Igbo took this action because the nation was erroneously informed of the Kaduna crisis by the Today risingspaper of 21/2/2000. ollowing this, other major towns in the country started brewing with tension. No one can quantify the extent of damages caused by these ethnic crises in Nigeria. Hundreds of thousands of lives were scattered leaving behind them so many orphans and widows, many were m take ined and wounded, private and public property worth millions of naira were damaged. Also the tribes of Nigeria are left in a terrible state of perpetual psychological insecurity and fear especially those settling in a region other than their own.In this way, the spirit of national cohesion which is the bedrock of peace and stability still remain a dream, Nigerians therefore remain in either cold war or open war with one another. Religious Crisis In Nigeria (Causes) The causes of religious crisis in Nigeria seem to have been an event that occurs as a surprise to all concerned citizens of the nation. The crisis are mostly centered on religion though with some hidden motives. Religion which is often used as cover up is considered as one of the major causes of the crisis in Nigeria.Definition of Religion. Religion according to the Oxford Dictionary is defined as one of the systems of faith that are based on the belief in the existence of a grouchy God or go ds Jewish religion, Christian Religion, Islamic religion and other world religions8. It is also defined as, a particular interest or influence that is very important in ones life 9. Christianity is the belief in Christ, the man that Christians believe is the son of God and on those teachings the Christian religion is based.The prayer book 1998 states the Christian faith is based on the belief in one God summarized in what is popularly known as Nicene Creed thus reads We believe in one God, the father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, messiah Christ, God from God, light from light, true God from true God, begotten not made, of one being with the father, through him all things were made. For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate of the Virgin Mary and was made man. 0 Islam as a religion is an Arabic word and connotes submission, surrender and obedience to the laws of Allah. Islam is to enter into peace and Muslim is one who makes his peace wit Allah and mans peace wit Allah implies complete submission to his will and peace wit man is not only to refrain from diabolical, injury to another man but also o do good to him. Christianity and Islam as religions of peace talk peace and co existence among their adherents. The Bible says in the Book of Prophet Isaiah 96 title Jesus Christ as the prince of peace12.It will be absurd to see the followers of this prince of peace breaching the peace that was announced. Based on Islamic peace teaching, Al-Ezzati observed, that The task of guiding the misled to virtuous behavior and persuading them to stop doing wrong (Al-amir bil-al-ma-rouf wa-al-nahy anil-munkar) is laid on every Muslim and this is why every Muslim is supposed to preach righteousness and decency13 . Religious crisis in Nigeria seems to be as a result of digression from the teachings of both religions.Prophet Isa (Jesus) (AS) d isplayed a good model and requested all his followers to emulate. In the New Testament, the apostle Paul in his admonition to the Romans in chapter 129, 10 & 18 charged them Let love be without dissimulation, abhor that which is evil, cleave to that which is good. Be kindly affectionate one to another with brotherly love in honour preferring one another. If it is possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with all men14. In Galatians 522 peaceful co-existence is described as one of the Christian virtues.The teachings of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) have shown in possibility and practice too, the right of neighbours both Muslims and non-Muslims, in a Hadith which states Whosoever happens to be such that his (or her) neighbours do not feel secured of being afflicted from his evils, will not be admitted into paradise15. Another Hadith states By Allah he has not acquired Iman (faith) and by Allah he has not acquired Iman. So it was said who is that person O ye messenger of Allah He s aid, that one whose neighbours do not feel safe from the evil in him or (her). Bukhari narrated 16.The above traditions teach harmonious relationship that is to be encouraged by both followers of the two faiths especially the Muslims. To buttress further from the Christian side, the Holy Bible, in Peter 311 says Let him eschew evil, and do good, let him seek peace and ensue it. For the eyes of the Lord are over the righteous, and his ears are open unto their prayers. But the face of the Lord is against them that do evil 17. If such teachings are emulated by both Muslims and non-Muslims of the world, and Nigeria in particular, there will be no religious crisis.Most if not all of the crisis occurred out of ignorance. The present society tends to neglect all the above teachings and behave recklessly as explained above. Umar Ibn Khattab the second caliph said when sending troops to the battle field. Destroy not fruit trees, nor fertile fields in your path, be just and spare the feelings of the vanquished, respect all religious persons who live in hermitage or convents, and spare their edifice18. Ezzati further explains how caliph Umar protected the people of the Book.The killings, destructions being done in the process of fighting each other is not religious. In one of Jesus last sermons to his disciples in John 1427, He said Peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto you19. As mentioned above, the religious crisis in Nigeria are mostly manifested out of none adherence to the teachings of all the religions, since all the Holy books like the Quran and the Bible teaches peaceful co-existence of the people. The Quran openly states in chapter 2 verse one hundred ninety Fight for the sake of those that fight against you, but do not attack them first.Allah does not love aggressors20. It is therefore not true to say that the Muslim leaders or Christians of Nigeria are ignorant of such verses and the relationship that existed at the early state, which is supposed to be emulated by the present society. Quran 2256 states There should be no compulsion in religion21. Another verse states 1096 Unto you your religion and unto me my religion22. The above verses shows that many religions could co-exist in harmony without conflict since followers of every religion are enjoined to stick to their religions.For example, in the time of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW), some religions existed side by side with Islam, and the prophet himself accorded much respect to the followers of these religions. The Quran is full of teachings in which no doubt about it, a guidance to those who are pious, who fear Allah and very much abstain from all kinds of sins and evil industrial plant which Allah has forbidden, and performance of good deeds which He has ordained. Several crises occurred in many parts of Nigeria from the initial stage as tribal and later turned to religious crisis.But the question is, were all these actually religious crisis, if they were, were the forerunner s of these crises ignorant of such teachings of the glorious Quran and The Bible? One may likely say that such crisis were not religious as such, since the holy prophet states in one of his traditions that the blood of a brother Muslim is only lawful in three ways 1. When a Muslim kills a Muslim brother, he will be killed. 2. When he commits apostasy (Ridda) and warned to repent, if he refused, he will be killed. 3. When a unite man or married woman commits adultery he or she will be killed.Again the messenger of Allah (P. B. U. H) said A thief will not commit theft at the time he/she commits it while he is still a Mumin and drunkard will no drink at the time he/she drinks while he/she is still a mumin, and the armed robber will not commit robbery of the precious thing, with people watching him at the time he commits robbery while he is still a mumin23. The above Hadith illustrated the situation in Nigeria about those who call themselves religious and yet engage in such irreligiou s crisis. As pointed out above, the immediate causes of which can therefore be attributed to A.Pretensious ignorance of followers of the dominant religions in their religious tenets coupled with lack of proper adherence to the teachings of their religions. B. Due to Lack of Allahs consciousness ethno religious crisis arising from economic consideration from the leaders of Nigeria, many of the crisis are economically ignited, e. g. with all Nigerias rock oil wealth, what has been done to alleviate the sufferings of the majority masses. In such a case, uprisings occur in the name of religious crisis where the frustrated Nigerians will take laws into their hands in the name of protecting the interest of their various religions.Though Muslims cite example of a hadith which says If one sees an abomination he should correct it with his hand and if that is not possible, he should correct it with his tongue and if that is not possible he should hate it in his heart, the later being the we akest degree of faith24. The above Hadith shows the level of bailiwick to be embarked upon by any good Muslim, not the correction through destruction as it is done in Nigeria. This is the correction that is done, not with the loss of lives or destruction of public property C.Although Nigeria is a secular state, yet some top government officials take biased decisions in favour of their religions, especially on employment and other government affairs. This action always provokes the followers of other religions which consequently result to crisis in the name of religion. An example is that of complains by Christians about the Arabic inscriptions in the Nigerian currency, while on the other hand the Muslims too complain about Friday not being work-free day just like their Christiancounterparts enjoy Sundays as work free day.D. Misunderstanding of the concept of sharia law Some Muslims and non Muslims in the country are ignorant of the entire concept of shariah and therefore, see it as an instrument of oppression and abuse of human rights. With this erroneous conception of shariah, some Muslims and non Muslims oppose its implementation openly and in so doing conflicts of religious nature occur. To this end, remedy to these problems must be sought in order to create a peaceful social environment for the overall development of our country, Nigeria.Suggestions As Remedies For Ethno-Religious Crisis In Nigeria. We have seen that the socio-political history of Nigeria has been bedeviled with series of conflicts especially of ethnic and religious nature. These conflicts are also varied, sometimes within a given religion or between religions, so also is the case with ethnic crisis. These crisis are seriously hindering the nation towards achieving one of its desired objectives of unity and stability which is the basic pre-requisite for any meaningful development.Below are a number of suggestions which would serve as remedies to the frequent ethnic and religious crisis i n the country. 1. The method of imparting to the Nigerian multitude the spirit of patriotism should be revisited. Nigerians should be fully acquainted with the ethics of patriotism. They should be made to take the nation first before any sectional interest. 2. Followers of both religions should value and adhere strictly to the teachings of their faiths since all religions are peace-loving, the spirit of tolerance ad cooperation will be developed so that Nigerians can work with one another peacefully. . The basic aim of the Federal Character Commission should be observed with all sense of seriousness. The aim is to give every citizen of Nigeria a sense of belonging to the nation notwithstanding the diversities of ethnic origin, culture, language or religion which may exist and which it is their desireto nourish, harness to the enrichment of the federal Republic of Nigeria. If this aim is fully implemented, all Nigerians irrespective of language, religions or sex will have a sense o f belonging and fuller participation in all government affairs without discrimination.In this way the feeling of one tribe or religion dominating the other will be discarded. 4. Formation of associations of purely tribal nature should be out rightly discouraged. 5. Inter-faiths Mediation Centers should be developed at all levels of government. 6. Law enforcement and security agents should be re-oriented on the importance of being neutral when putting down crisis of any nature in the country. 7. Standards should be set for treatment on all religions. In this way rampant preaching by the scholars of various religions could be controlled. 8.The supreme bodies of various religions in the country should enforce the law guiding the adherence of their belief system. Muslims for example should be made to apply Shariah. In the same vein application of ecclesial law should be encourage . In this way conflicts within and between religions would be reduced. 9. Media houses and the press should always be fair in their reports, especially when it involves crisis of ethnic and religious nature. 10. As some of the crisis are caused deliberately by area boys and certain movements, this is actually reflecting the economic situation of the country.Effort should be done to reduce the activities of area boyism through employment and equitable distribution of the nations wealth. 11. There should be jibe war against the debilitating problems of ignorance, poverty and disease, therefore promoting the well being of the individuals that make up the nation. Notes And References 1. Eleazu, U. History and Geography of Nigeria in Eleazu U. Ed. Nigeria The first 25 years, Lagos Heinemann. 1985 -p3 2. Abdul Basir, A. A. & Bala, U. K, In inquisition of Lingua Franca/National Language Towards Sustainable Democracy for Nation Building.A seminar paper presented at the 1st national Conference organized by School of Arts & Social Sciences, F. C. E. Kontagora. From 26th 30th April. 2004, p- 1 3 . Ryder, A. F. C. The Trans-Atlantic slave Trade in Obaro, I. Ed. Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan, Heinemann. 1980. p150 4. Ekeh, P. P. and Osaghae, E. E. (eds) Federal Character and Federalism in Nigeria, Ibadan, Heinemann. 1989 p 337 5. Ibid, p337 6. Ibid, p340 7. Al-mizan of 16th Zulkida, 1420 Similarly see all the publications of Almizan and other Kaduna based Newspapers published within the period of the Kaduna crisis, I. . from 20th February, 2000. 8. Hornby, A. S. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, 6th Ed. New York. 2000. p 900 9. Ibid pp. 900 10. The Holy Bible Authorized King James Version, U. S. A. World Publishing. Ioma falls Ioma 50126 p. 165 11. Edmund, P. Christianity in Northern Nigeria. 2nd Ed. Zaria, Gaskiya Corporation. 1976, p131. 12. Ibid,p. 131. 13. Ezzati, A. An introduction to the History of the stretch out of Islam, Lagos, Islamic Publication Bureau. 1979. p 4. 14. Ibid, p 116 15.Idris, I. G. The need of a Muslim (Bugyatul-Muslimi na) English translation, Kauran Wali Islamic Publishers, Kaduna. 1979. p 49. 16. Ibid pp 49 17. Ibid in Peter 311 18. Ezzati, A. 1979 p. 5. 19. Authorized King James Version, John 1427 pp. 78 20. King Fahd Complex The noble Quran, English Translation of the meanings and commentary. (1419 A. H). 2190 21 Ibid, 2256 22Ibid, 109 6 23. Abdur Rahman, I. Doi. Shariah The Islamic Law, Ta Ha Publications, London, 1984 p 355/6 24Idris, I. G. 1979. p. 50.

Islamic Political Thought Essay

The division of spiritual and temporal in Christianity has taken a long time to be enacted into the semipolitical theory of the western mind. There is a long history of church rule behind todays secular political thinking. Which recognizes religion as of no substance in the eye of the province. They have taken the sovereignty from God and put it into the hands of the people. In doing so they have declared collective human moral sense as their guide and have rejected all sorts of scriptures of divine nature. This is leading these societies to moral ruin.Approval of homosexuality as a legal put on by the legislatures of some western countries is an indication of the moral collapse that awaits them. Although Islam has no division of spirit and mundane but still does not support theocracy or any former(a) form of autocratic rule. It has taken a middle course, which can best be explained by the word autonomous. Giving the absolute function and responsibility of guidance in the hand s of God, Islam lets the, Muslims to solve unlimited sovereignty within the limits of Quran and Sunnah. Introduction This topic seemingly look very primary and the one which can have a straightforward answer.But actually it required a great insight into the historical and the political perspective of Muslim world at large. This proposition can be tackled at a number of levels. One system of addressing this question could be to go to the theological injunctions, that is, to solicit from Quran and Hadith. The second approach could be of gibe into the history and bringing taboo the relevant ex enormouss. There is yet another way of going finished this riddle and that is to examine the evolution of political ideology in the world of Islam and comparing it with the political evolution of the other nations or rest of the world.We may accept any of the above methodology. But in order to get a better view of things and comprehensive answer to this question. We analyze it at all the tierce above-mentioned levels. This will certainly render us a better understanding of not only this question but also of many other aspects of related political problems confronting the modern Muslim societies. Before beginning with our discussion it is useful that we first determine what sovereignty is? Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary describes sovereignty as the highest power or fully independent and self-governing.Similarly Websters dictionary gives the following meanings to this word supreme leader or the one who exercise way in a limited sphere. Quranic Interpretation As for as simplest mind, which goes through the Quranic text, it cannot ignore the fact that the God, that is Allah, is omnipotent, all powerful and all governing. This is the first and the suffer impression, which Quran leaves on any mind, no matter how naive it may be. Contrary to many doctrines, Quran declares Allah to be the sole authority on every(prenominal) thing that is present not only in this w orld but the whole of the universe. Many Quranic verses can be quoted in this context. Blessed is the Lord who holds rig over all and is Omnipotent. (Al-mulk) And again Exalted is the One who controls every thing and to Him you shall resurrect. (Ya-seen)This makes very cleat that every thing lies with Allah. It flows from thence unto His creatures. Same is the case with authority and sovereignty. Allah has send man on this earth as his vicegerent. Allah has given man sovereignty to reign on this world. As Quran says, (remember) When your Lord said to angels that thence I shall appoint a vicegerent on Earth. (Al-baqarah) Thus, man rules earth on the behalf of his Lord.Therefore he can exercise sovereignty with in certain limits, confident(p) by Allah. Once established that sovereignty is a reign were man has been given access. We bring out out whether men have been given some well(p) to make decisions for themselves or not. Is a principle selected by Allah and oblige on men or they are encouraged to exercise their sovereign right by some collective means? outright this is an arguable question. Some section may say that a king or some sort of ruler, imposed on the society by one way or the other, has the right to exercise the sovereignty that Allah has bestowed upon men.And we also find such a precedent in the Quran, from the story of Talloot and Jalloot in sura al-baqarah we come to spot that kings were imposed on men without their will and consultation, what so ever. One may cite this example from the blessed book to give weight to his argument. But one thing must be kept in minds of the people that it was the practice of Allah for the people of Israel, usually referred to as Banu-Isreal in the Quran.Who were in a stage of evolution that was to culminate at the advent of the last visionary Muhammad (P.B. U. H)? For us i. e. the ummah of the last prophet, this rule has changed. And the new scheme under which the sovereignty has to be exercised i s given in the following verse And they conduct their affairs with mutual consultation. (Shura) Thus we see that Quran encourages its followers to draw a scheme of exercising their sovereignty over themselves by a way, which hinges itself over some system of broader consultation. Of the two views, latter is the one, which seems to be accurate and enveloping(prenominal) to the rationale thinking.From the above discussion, we have reached a conclusion that Quran does recognize the sovereignty of Muslim citizen in an Islamic state and they have to device such a methodology or system, which makes it convenient for them to achieve broader consultation. Quran, similarly, rejects a single persons claim to sovereignty and authority. Who so ever becomes a ruler of a muslim state must take the views of the society while making decisions? Now the Quran does not let loose Muslims after tolerant them right to sovereignty. There are a number of responsibilities that the Quran puts on their sh oulders.And Quran, in its own brief but effective manner, puts them as Those to whom we give power, must establish the system of prayers and charity and they ask the people to do good and forbid from doing evil. Guidance from Sunnah Sunnah i. e. prophets heart and actions is the biggest etymon after the Holy (Quran). There fore, we refer our self to this source. As the Quran says, Consult Allah and the Prophet in a matter of discord. At another determine it is mentioned Surely there is the best guidance for you in the life of the prophet. We see that the early part of the Prophet hood of Prophet Muhammad (P.B. U. H) does not give us any clue of the relation of citizens and state. It is only the latter part of his Prophet hood i. e. Medina period, in which he established a city state that we find some form or structure of a government. Now we can have any debate on the question of citizens sovereignty in the eye of Islam basing our investigations on this period of Prophet Muhamm ad (P. B. U. H)s life. It has become convenient, for at the very beginning of Medina period there is a record of a political agreement between all the cross-sections of population of Medina.This political document in itself, otherwise, is a very important and valuable document. It gives an insight into the political situation of the Muslims in position and Medina and its surrounding in general. Coming back to the question we are confronted with. We investigate this document to find if it sheds any light on this particular question. The first clause, which defines the parties to the treaty, adequately addresses the sovereignty of the citizens. 1. This is the treaty between the Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H), Aus and Khazraj (the helpers) and Jews of Medina and its surroundings. .Above-mentioned parties would be one group for the defense of Medina. 3. Every body is independent to practice ones religion. 4. Disputes among Jews would be settled according to their laws. It was an unprece dented treaty in respect of its very liberal approach towards communities of other religions. The point, which is very important for our thesis, is that everybody in Medina was inured as an equal party in this treaty. This was going to be the future constitution of that state for the rest of the life of the Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H).Although the Jews broke this accord and had to contain its price. We do not talk about Jews as is mentioned above that they were left to their own laws. But the Divine laws governed Muslims. Which were revealed to the Prophet (P. B. U. H. ) from time to time. Thus we see that Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) in that state was the sole source of legislation. All the laws came from him. Many people misunderstand this phenomenon and they equate this authority of making laws by the Prophet Muhammad (P. BU. H) (that were revealed) as a precedent for authoritarian government by a single man.No, this approach is essentially flawed and contrary to the practic e of the Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H). If we examine his political life and circumstances prevalent at that time more carefully and keenly. Then we get to a conclusion rather different from the misunderstanding that has been indicated above. As we know that Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) was sent to a people who were totally ignorant, had never experienced any form of collective government and, therefore did not have laws and legislations. set ahead more, Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H)s, messaged was meant for all times to come.Thus Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) was sent to such a neighborhood where he could construct a model beginning from kale and having no influence of any previous system whatsoever. Now it was Prophet Muhammads (P. B. U. H) job to introduce to them a system of laws and governance based on the divine guidance, and through them he was to demonstrate it to all people for all times to come. Laws were of course revealed and Muslims had and have to obey them as such. But when it comes to governance, we have ample examples to quote Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) mostly used the method of consultation.And this is what the message is that after the discontinuation of revelation, Muslims have to run their affairs in the light of revealed guidance by mutual consultation. To quote few examples from Prophet Muhammads (P. B. U. H) life, in order to support the notion that citizens of an Islamic state do have some rights to exercise sovereignty over themselves, we refer to the following instances from the Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) life 1. As mentioned previously, in the very beginning of political history of the state of Medina general world i. e. Muslims were do an equal part in the matters of the governance.Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) did not make himself the sole set upative of the whole Muslim community. 2. Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) appointed twelve representatives (Naqeebs) among the Ansar to represent them. 3. Before the battle of Badr Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) consulted Muhajreen as well as Ansar. 4. In the battlefield of Badr, the camping place of the army was selected on the advice of Habbad-bin-Munzir. 5. At the time of Uhad , Prophet Muhammads (P. B. U. H) own opinion was to fight within the city but the general opinion was to fight outside the city, and that was followed. 6.In the battle of Ahzaab, the strategy of digging a trench for the defense of Medina was again an idea presented by Salman. 7. The method of calling the faithful to the prayer was again a matter sort out by mutual consultation. Hence at end of this chapter we conclude that Prophet Muhammads (P. B. U. H) life adequately provides us the evidence that in an Islamic state the power to rule and govern lies with the citizens and not with a single person or family or some creed. Rather it is the right of the people to govern themselves as they please, but of course not violating the Quranic limits set upon them.Those to whom we give power, m ust establish the system of prayers and charity and they ask the people to do good and forbid from doing evil. Islamic History and Muslim Scholars We have come out of an academic discussion. Now we shall be analyzing historical events and political realities. As we enter into a new soma of discussion. It will be very useful that we revise and redefine the question we are confronted with. So when we ask this that are people sovereign in Islam? What do we actually mean to imply? What are the other questions, which confront us when we say, yes people are sovereign?Having proved that sole source of power and energy is the Allah Almighty do we mean to say, that Allah and His angels are physically involved in the governance of a state? Of course not, is the obvious answer. It is the men themselves who shall be pose for any type of government. After placing theoretically all powers in Allah, when sovereignty is given to citizens it means following things. 1. Any government that is for med will be only due to the consensus of the majority of people. 2. Whenever there is some decision to be made, again it will be referred to people.Whatever a government or the rulers do is accountable to public. 4. As the government or state has functional powers, thus checks and balances on it to safeguard people against any sort of tyranny or exploitation. Now we shall examine different types of governments in Islamic history on the basis of these above points. To begin with, we first analyze first four guided caliphs. Abu Bakr (R. A) was made caliphs and presented him in front of public. His first address is very suitable example. It encompasses almost all the above four points. He said O people I have been made caliph against my will.